Sunday, August 14, 2011

Preface



Several years ago I watched a televised special on one of the learning channels that dealt with St. Sebastian. A particular focus of the documentary dealt with Guido Reni. Now, I must admit Reni had never placed high on my list of favored artists. But, as the narrative unfolded my interest was piqued, particularly regarding the three, nearly identical versions of the standing figure with hands tied above the head--i.e., Capitonino, Genoa and Cheltenham--and the five, virtually identical renditions with hands behind the back--i.e., Louvre, Dulwich, Auckland, Prado and Ponce.


Just out of curiosity, I began to locate and identify the numerous two-dimensional images on the Internet. Within a few weeks I had amassed nearly one-thousand-five-hundred examples. I was mildly amazed. The two-dimensional images of Saint Sebastian were only exceeded by those of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary!


Why was this martyr-saint so popular? So, I began to make a visual analysis of the collected works as well as the socio-cultural milieu within which they were produced. The following is a brief result of my delving.


The examples found in this study were gleaned from the Internet. There are two Internet sites which were invaluable in the preparation of this study. In both cases there is a vast amount of information and examples in each. They are: The Iconography of Saint Sebastian found at http://bode.diee.unica.it/%7Egiua/SEBASTIAN/#Painting; and the second is the Iconografia di San Sebastiano nell’arte figurativa italiana found at http://www.sansebastiano.com/copertina.htm. In addition a Google search for St. Sebastian images indicates "4,770,000 results," many of which were duplicates. In addition many "Blogger" sites were blocked due to their erotic content and when opened provided numerous examples not displayed in the Google images.

Introduction


The history of many early saints of the Christian church are sketchy, at best. Most of the knowledge we have of them comes from the oral tradition and legend. Little is truly known of the IIIrd Century Roman named Sebastian. Yet St. Sebastian is one of the most famous of all Christian martyr-saints. Nearly every major European artist from the Late Medieval through the Baroque has portrayed the martyrdom of this saint in one manner or another. Painted images of this saint are counted in the thousands and sculptural images in the hundreds. As a subject, the martyrdom of St. Sebastian is seen to be second only to the depiction of the Crucifixion of the Christ.1



An early account of St. Sebastian is found in the Depositio Martyrum of 354 C.E. By the time of St. Ambrose, St. Sebastian was widely venerated. Sebastian is said to have come from Milan, but is believed to have been born in Narbonne (Gallia Narbonensis). He was the son of a prosperous and apparently a fairly prominent citizen of that city--i.e., Milan. As such Sebastian's early life would have been fairly comfortable; he would have been raised and educated is relative affluence. As a young man, probably his late teens, Sebastian entered the employ of the Roman Empire as a soldier, reportedly in the ranks of the Praetorian Guard and circled within the Imperial presence. He advanced in that regiment and, in time rose to the rank of an officer. It has been said that he was favored by the Emperor Diocletian which has caused some to surmise that there was something more between the two than Emperor and servitor. However, "Sebastian's sexuality is not only greatly speculative, but also rather inconsequential."2 At some point Sebastian converted to Christianity, possibly before his advancement in the elite Praetorian Guard. Certainly, by the time of his martyrdom, in 286 C.E., Sebastian would have been a grown, mature man. Some declare that he was of middling-years. Having been converted to Christianity, he was said to have been responsible for the conversion of several notable Roman citizens. Being discovered a Christian, Sebastian was commanded to recant his beliefs, but he refused to disavow his faith. Sebastian was then condemned to death by the August Emperor Diocletian.


There were a number of means by which execution could be accomplished in Roman times, some forms were rapid--e.g., shot with arrows or clubbed to death or hung--while others were slow--e.g., stoned or buried alive or crucifixion. Sebastian was taken outside the palace, stripped, bound to a tree or stake and shot by the Mauritanian archers of the Imperial Guard. Death by arrows could be a relatively quick and a sure form of execution particularly when the missiles hit vital organs. But, he survived, either miraculously or by the ineptitude of the Mauritanian archers. These archers from North Africa were a vaunted corps within the Imperial army and were noted and respected throughout the Empire and incompetence was not part of their being. Their corps was exclusively made up of those tall, proud, dark skinned Mauritanians from North Africa who were later known as the Moors. So his survival from their arrows apparently had certain supernatural implications. Certainly, the proud and independent Moors would not have shown any deference for one from Milan even though he had been a member of an elite Imperial guard. It is this particular form of execution--i.e., being shot with arrows--incomplete as it was, that is forever associated with St. Sebastian and is part of his primary iconic identification.


Legend tells us he was found wounded, but still alive and nursed back to health by the sainted widow of St. Castulus--i.e., St. Irene. Castulus was a chamberlain in the Court of the August Emperor Diocletian, who had converted to Christianity while in the Emperor’s employ. In addition he was instrumental in the conversion of a number of the Imperial Household to Christianity before he was discovered and condemned to be buried alive in 286 C.E. It is possible that it was in the home of Castulus and Irene that Sebastian was introduced to the new faith, although there is no evidence to suggest it. St. Irene, having lost her husband the same year, ministered to the martyr-saint, whom she may have known. After his miraculous return to health and well being, Sebastian was credited with several miracles. But, life was not long to be his. Rather than flee Rome for his own safety for more friendly environs, he remained in that city. Sebastian even re-entered the Imperial Palace where he again appeared before the Emperor and chastised him for his persecution of Christians. This must have been a surprise to the Imperial Person as well as an intolerable situation. Sebastian was immediately re-condemned and he was summarily clubbed to death (some source say that he was stoned). In actuality, St. Sebastian's martyrdom was by clubbing or stoning, not by being shot with arrows. Yet, it is the initial attempt on his life that has caught the imagination of artists and it became their preferred subject through the ages. Arrows protruding from a body is usually far more descriptive than the bruises left by a cudgel.




Exactly when St. Sebastian was canonized is not known. The Church merely states that he was elevated to sainthood in "Pre-Congregation" times, as were many early saints--e.g., Saint Apphia, Saint Maris of Persia, Saint Nereus of Terracina among many others..


The earliest known representation of the martyr St. Sebastian is seen in a mosaic of between 527 and 585 C.E. in Sant' Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna (See: Figure 1). In this mosaic the martyr-saint, one of a line, is represented as a Byzantine nobleman, tonsured and holding the wreath of martyrdom, no other iconic device is indicated. If it were not for his name floating over his head, he would be indistinguishable from the rest in that august assemblage. Also there is an early representation of St. Sebastian in San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome of 682 C.E. (See: Figure 2). Here, again, he is recognized by his name bracketing his body.




1. Anonymous, (between 527 and 565), St. Sebastian, Basilica di Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, mosaic.























2. Anonymous, (c. 680), St. Sebastian, +hurch of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, mosaic.










One of the earliest known representation of the semi-nude St. Sebastian is to be found in the c. 1435 Master of the Playing Cards (See: Figure 3). Here, the martyr-saint is shown tied to a leafed tree and wearing the briefest of undergarment in contrast to the fully clothed archers. After the mid-XVth Century, a plethora of paintings appeared depicting the semi-nude figure of the martyr-saint--e.g., Marco Zoppo (c. 1453) (See: Figure 4), Andrea Mantegna (1459, 1480 & 1490) (See: Figures 5,6 & 7), Cosimo Tura (c. 1470) (See: Figure 8), Sandro Botticelli (1474) (See: Figure 9), among others. Generally, the saint is portrayed as a youth or a young man.



3. Master of the Playing Cards, (German, active 1435-1455), The Martyrdom

of Saint Sebastian, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,



















4. Marco Zoppo, (1433-1478), St. Sebastian (1475), Courtauld Institute Gallery, London.





































5. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), St. Sebastian (c. 1459), Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna.




























6. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), St. Sebastian (c. 1480), Musée du Louvre, Paris


































7. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), St. Sebastian (c. 1490), Ca' d'Oro, Venice












8. Cosimo Tura (c. 1430-1495), St. Sebastian, (c. 1470), Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin (Germany).






























9. Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), St. Sebastian (1474), Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin.










In 1497, the artists Josse Lieferinxe and Bernardo Simondi depicts, in three paintings, the last days of St. Sebastian's life--i.e., the piercing of arrows in which a calm, resigned martyr is shown (See: Figure 10); the nursing by St. Irene in which she appears garbbed in the robes of a nun (See: Figure 11); and the violent, clubbing to death of the martyr-saint (See: Figure 12). It is of interest to note that the piercing of arrows far exceeds the depiction of the clubbing as a subject in the life of St. Sebastian. The nursing of St. Irene is depicted in numerous paintings particularly after the mid XVIth Century.



10. Josse Lieferinxe and Bernardino Simondi (active 1493-1508), Martyrdom of St. Sebastian (1497). Philadelphia Museum of Art.















11. Josse Lieferinxe and Bernardino Simondi (active 1493-1508), St. Sebastian healed by Irene (1497). Philadelphia Museum of Art.
















12. Josse Lieferinxe and Bernardino Simondi (active 1493-1508), Death of St. Sebastian (1497). Philadelphia Museum of Art.































Saturday, August 13, 2011

As a result of his martyrdom and elevation to sainthood, St. Sebastian is venerated not only by the Roman Catholic Church, but also be the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Church. His fame grew and his memory became so revered that over the centuries he was named Patron Saint of: soldiers (infantrymen), youth, archers, armorers, smiths, athletes, diseased cattle, dying people; fletchers, gardeners, gunsmiths, racquet makers, lead workers, masons, iron mongers, lace makers & lace-workers, bookbinders, police, stone masons, stonecutters, plague sufferers, epilepsy sufferers, all children, especially unruly children, funeral directors, potters, swans and those persecuted by the enemies of religion. Thousands of cathedrals, basilicas, churches and chapels were dedicated to St. Sebastian as well as: the Diocese of Bacolod and the Diocese of Tarlac in the Philippines; and the Papal Castel Gandolfo, Italy. Numerous cities were placed under the patronage of St. Sebastian--e.g., Qormi, Malta; Caserta, Italy; Palma, Mallorca; San Sebastian, Spain; Huelva, Spain; Bracciano, Italy; Hünxe, Germany; San Sebastian, Puerto Rico; Rocca Priora, Italy; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Chepan, Peru; and the whole of the Philippines. He also was the Patron Saint of the Pontifical Swiss Guards and Spanish police officers. In the XXth Century St. Sebastian was unanimously adopted as the patron saint of gay people. This, of course, without the imprimatur of the Congregation. Many view his assumption by the gay world, in part, as being connected with the sadomasochistic nature of the saint's portrayal over the centuries. Unfortunately, with the XXth Century subsumption of St. Sebastian as the patron saint of the gay community, myriad images were thrown upon the patron's band wagon that other than the subject held little religious meaning. Frequently, most are of little artistic merit, virtually no religious connotation and a justifiable means to portray the totally nude male body.


There may be several reasons for the widespread popularity of this martyr-saint. The Empire by the time of the Emperor Diocletian had reached a high point and was administratively unwieldy. The vicissitudes of ruling the vast Roman Empire became virtually intolerable. Diocletian (r. 284-305 C.E.), in an administrative move, established the tetrarch--i.e., two rulers called Augustus and two assistants named Caesar. One pair ruled the eastern half of the Empire, and the other the western part. The August Emperor Diocletian ruled in Rome. Later the August Emperor Constantine (r. 324-337 C.E.) would reunite the Empire under a single ruler. When Sebastian was found to be a Christian and would not recant his belief, he was condemned by Diocletian, taken out, bound to either a tree or a stake or a column and shot with arrows as noted above. He survived. After being nursed back to health he refused to flee Rome for his own safety. Sebastian then confronted the August Emperor Diocletian on the steps of his palace and berated his persecution of Christians, as well as, it is said, smashing "pagan" idols. This was intolerable! He was summarily re-condemned, taken out and clubbed to death. St Sebastian has the distinction of being double-martyred.


Dying for one's faith and being elevated to sainthood has never been enough to raise one to the dizzying heights of churchly popularity that St. Sebastian has enjoyed over the centuries. He became a saintly super-star, or a super saint! There were numerous martyr-saints before and many were to follow. Most exist in relative anonymity and/or obscurity. But, what has singled out St. Sebastian and elevated him to ecclesiastical super-stardom? It would seem that a number of reasons conspired to accomplish this task. Reasons, which in and of themselves are somewhat disconnected, but when conjoined, they create a situation that elevates this relatively unimportant Roman soldier to celestial realms of a super-martyr. Initially, when Sebastian refused to leave Rome for the safety of the provinces, he placed himself, willingly on a collision course with the August Emperor and eventual death. Diocletian had been particularly vociferous in his persecution of the Early Christians. His stance, his position, his disposition was clear. But, apparently Sebastian stayed in the Imperial employ--a place of danger for him. This may be seen as a passive form of suicide. But, to die for one’s faith had a certain caché in many circles then as now. It must be remembered that the Bible, as we know it today would not appear for another century and the Roman Catholic Church was still foetal at best. So, to die for one’s belief took uncommon courage and deep faith at the time of St. Sebastian.



Secondly, the temerity Sebastian exhibited in confronting the powerful temporal ruler, the August Emperor Diocletian, was revolutionary. Such audacity, such boldness, such impudence was unheard of in a time when most existed in silent, submissive servitude to the all-powerful state. S.P.Q.R. reigned supreme in St. Sebastian’s time. Later, the Fall of the Roman Empire and the Sack of Rome by the barbarians were political crisis of unparalleled consequences at the time. Only the fledgling Church survived, relatively intact.


By the middle of the Medieval or the Romanesque Period there were two powers in Europe vying for ultimate control--i.e., the temporal and the ecclesiastical. No one of any note confronted the temporal or ecclesiastical powers 'til the XIth Century. Henry IVth, Holy Roman Emperor opposed Pope Gregory VIIth and was excommunicated. For his audacity he was forced to stand in the snow outside Canossa castle to beg the Pope's pardon. Pierre Abélard made a bold assault on the ecclesiastical power in his professed love for the young Héloïse, her pregnancy and their sub rosa union were not tolerated. The affair became a cause célèbre. But the Church's power was too great for the famed Pierre Abélard and he was forced to retire to a monastery. Not until Martin Luther did anyone challenge the power of the Church with any success. Therefore, the challenge to a power module in the physical form of the Roman Emperor at this time was enough to bring some attention to Sebastian, particularly among the Christians.



A third, and probably the most important reason for his great popularity may be found in his being a patron saint of those suffering from pestilence. The period when St. Sebastian’s popularity ballooned as the patron saint of pestilence seems to have occurred in the last half of the XVth Century. However, there seems to be some association with pestilence earlier. St. Sebastian is seen by some to be an Early Christian counterpart to the Greco-Roman deity Apollo. Among his many attributes, Apollo was an archer and associated with the healing arts. The Greeks and Romans offered their prayers and sacrifices to him during times of pestilence. He is often portrayed and a handsome, polished young man of grace, elegance and physical beauty. The parallel association with St. Sebastian is obvious, and St. Sebastian became related to the Greco-Roman protector from the pestilence.


In Europe, the Spring of 1348 was the beginning of one of the most terrifying times for the continent. It was the first appearance of the Great Plague, "the Black Death." By 1351 this horrendous pestilence had swept through all Europe with devastating and far reaching effect. Rich and poor were effected with frightening equality, whole families succumbed, those self-isolated in castles or distant towns were not spared, the countryside was equally effected and many cities were severely depopulated. The entire European continent was traumatized to its core. It is conservatively estimated that in this short period of time--i.e., three years--fifty-million people succumbed. Once infected, survival occurred only in the rarest of instances. The appearance of any of a number of symptoms was a death sentence, sure and swift.


Hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands sent their supplications heavenward. Prayed to be spared the horrors of the plague. Few prayers were answered as the scythe of death swept indiscriminately across the land. Two saints especially were sought for protection during these horrendous times--i.e., St. Sebastian and St. Roch. There was nothing else! The effect of the Great Plague upon the social, political and economic fabric of Europe was unparalleled, savage, calamitous and devastating. Gypsies, Jews, witches, intellectuals were often seen as agar from which the plague sprang. Never mind that they too suffered equally from the plague. They were swiftly condemned and burned at the stake. Still this juggernaut moved inexorably across Europe and annihilated Christians and Jews, gypsies and princes, teachers and farmers, children and elderly, men and women, priests and infidels. It must be mentioned that Asia and Africa suffered a like fate at this time. No one was spared!


No one knew what it was or where it came from or what to do about it. Although, a number of anthro-pathologists seem to feel that it started in China and spread westward. In the XIXth Century, the cause of the Great Plague, "the Black Death" was tentatively identified as Bubonic plague. Bubonic plague’s symptoms are: chill, high fever, diarrhea, headache and the swelling of lymph nodes. The Bubonic plague is caused by a bacteria (Yersinia pestis). The period from the onset of the symptoms to death was frighteningly rapid. Generally, however, the appearance of dark splotches on the skin is not a symptom of the Bubonic plague although the lymph nodes do swell painfully.


In the late XXth Century, a different diagnosis was proffered by forensic anthropologists. The supposition rested upon certain symptoms that were described in writings of the time--i.e., the 14th through the 17th Centuries, particularly the appearance of subcutaneous hemorrhaging which created "black" splotches, or dark discolorations just beneath the surface of the skin. This hemorrhaging is not a feature of the Bubonic plague, as noted above, but it is a symptom of Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF)--e.g., the Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, Crimean-Congo and Dengue-Hemorrhagic varieties. The symptoms of viral hemorrhagic fever are: high fever, fatigue, dizziness, muscle aches, loss of strength, exhaustion, dehydration and subcutaneous hemorrhaging. The later symptom--i.e., subcutaneous hemorrhaging--causes what appears to be black splotches under the skin and many feel that this was the reason for the sobriquet "black death." As with the Bubonic plague death comes rapidly after the onslaught of the symptoms. In both the Bubonic plague and Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF) the survival rate was less than 10% without proper care and medication. The Great Plague or the "Black Death" of 1348 -1351 may well have been a result of both the Bubonic Plague and Viral Hemorrhagic Fever, a lethal cocktail, to be sure.


There is considerable evidence to suggest that the plague returned to Europe every generation until sometime after 1700. Major plague outbreaks after 1348 were 1361, 1389, 1496, 1535, 1543, etc. until 1720 when that last major outbreak was recorded. Each infestation was greeted with inordinate fear and concern among the populous of Europe and an almost slavish adherence to the canonical hours of prayer.3 But, each episode appeared to be less and less virulent than the one before and certainly far less devastating than the initial 1348-1351 pandemic. Therefore, it is not untoward that these two saints--i.e., St. Sebastian and St. Roch--who were thought of as patrons against pestilence would be paired and depicted time and time again, particularly during the apparent generational reappearance of the plague. In modern vernacular, it may be said that Europe, as a whole, was suffering from a cultural form of "post traumatic stress syndrome" since the 1348-1351 outbreak. And, St. Sebastian and St. Roch were the only recourse that the general population had at the time!


Therefore, the popularity of St. Sebastian, in part, may be seen to have developed from his martyrdom, his dying for his faith, his belief. When coupled with his strength of character in standing up to and confronting the ultimate power symbol of that period, doubles the luster of this martyr-saint. Finally, his patronage of the sick and pestilence ridden sees the explosion of his popularity after the mid XIVth Century. Renaissance artists focused on the sensual elements of the martyr-saint--i.e., his youth or young adulthood, his physical and spiritual parallel with Apollo as well as his placid acceptance of his lot. His subsumption by the gay community in the last of the XIXth Century only spotlighted his already brilliant, lambent popularity.


Iconoraphy


St. Sebastian is seen to be iconographically related to Apollo, an iconic precedent. The Greek god Apollo was considered to be the ideal male form and as such he was represented nude and in the prime of life and physical development. Not only was he considered to possess the ideal physical form, Apollo was seen as the ideal male in body, mind and spirit--the classical trinity--Apollonian. He was depicted as a handsome ideal and with the well developed musculature of a young adult. Apollo was also said to have been a superior archer. He was said to be the first in that sport amongst the gods of Olympus, and from time to time the bow is seen to be part of his iconic paraphernalia. In addition, Apollo was a deity to whom supplications were raised in times of pestilence by both the Greeks and Romans. Furthermore, Apollo was nearly always depicted nude, setting aside the modesty coverings--i.e., the fig leaves--supplied by the Church. Nonetheless, St. Sebastian's relation to Apollo is obvious.


The Arrow

The premier iconographic device associated with St. Sebastian is the arrow. The martyr-saint may be carrying the arrow(s) in his hand, or they may be found invading his flesh in varying numbers. Although his ultimate death was caused by clubbing, that device is rarely seen in connection with the martyr-saint. In many instances when the martyr-saint is portrayed fully clothed--i.e., prince-like--he may also carries a bow along with arrow(s). When he is portrayed, semi-nude and bound to a tree, stake or column, the arrows are generally seen to pierce his body in varying numbers and in varying locations. This initial mode of martyrdom--i.e., pierced by arrows--is nearly the only way that St. Sebastian is portrayed in the XIVth & XVth Centuries.


Normally the number of arrows are generally three to nine and are shown piercing his body, including his head. However, there are those who paint the body of the martyr-saint literally filled with arrows until he resembles a hedgehog or a pin cushion--e.g., Giovanni del Biondo (act. 1356-1399) places some 34+ arrows in the saint (See: Figure 13); 24+ arrows are seen in Carlo Crivelli's Saint Sebastian (1490) (See: Figure 14), and Benozzo Gozzoli (1465) pierces the saint with 20+ arrows (See: Figure 15), among others.




13. Giovanni del Biondo, (XIVth C.), Martyrdom of St Sebastian and Scenes from His Life, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence.
















14. Carlo Crivelli (1430?-1495?), St. Sebastian (1490-1491), Museo Poldi-Pezzoli, Milan.





















15. Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), St. Sebastian (1464-1465). Sant'Agostino, San Gimignano, Italy.


















In the XVIth - XVIIth Centuries one finds a number of representations of the martyr-saint in which no arrows have apparently violated his flesh‑--e.g., Amico Aspertini (c. 1505) (See: Figure 16), Sebastiano Luciani (called: del Piombo) (b. 1540), study (See: Figure 17), Jacopo de Barbari (1509), study (See: Figure 18), Guido Reni (c. 1615) (See: Figure 19), Marcantonio Bassetti (1620) (See: Figure 20), Biagio Manzoni (1630) (See: Figure 21), among others. In the XVIIth & XVIIIth Century rarely does one encounter St. Sebastian with more than four or five arrows entering his flesh. There are exceptions--e.g., an Anonymous Hungarian Master (b. 1625) (See: Figure 22) with nine arrows, and David Teniers (after Mantegna) (c 1655) bristles with 15+ arrows (See: Figure 23).




16. Amico Aspertini (1474/5-1552), Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints and Two Donors (Pala del tirocinio) (1503-1504), Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna.















17. Sebastiano Luciani aka del Piombo (1485-1547), St. Sebastian (c. 1507), Kupferstichkabinett - Museum of Prints and Drawings, Berlin.

















18. Jacopo de' Barbari (c. 1460/70-1516), St. Sebastian, (c. 1509), National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, study.




19. Guido Reni (1575-1642), St. Sebastian (c 1620), Franciscan University of Steubenville, Ohio, USA.














20. Marcantonio Bassetti (1588-1630), St. Sebastian (c. 1620). Private collection.
















21. Biagio Manzoni (active 1620-1635), Martyrdom of St Sebastian (c. 1630. Louvre, Paris.



22. Anonymous Hungarian Master (early XVIIth C.), St. Sebastian (b. 1625), Hungarian National Gallery (Budapest, Hungary).




















23. David Teniers, the Younger (1610-1690), St. Sebastian (a. 1630), Courtauld Institute Gallery, London.










In a number of portrayals of the martyr-saint in the XVIIth Century not only does a single arrow pierce his skin, he seems to be waiting in resigned anticipation of the coming penetrations--e.g., José Leonardo (c.1635) (See: Figure 24), Paolo Pagani, (c. 1696) (See: Figure 25), and Mattia Preti (called: il Cavalier Calabrese) (c. 1660) (See: Figure 26), among others. It appears that in a number of these latter paintings the martyr-saint has already slipped into an ecstatic state. By the XXth Century, more than two or three penetrating arrows become exceedingly rare, although not nonexistent.




24. José Leonardo (XVIIth C.), St. Sebastian (1635), Museo del Prado,Madrid.

















25. Paolo Pagani (1655-1716), St. Sebastian (1696), Church of St Anna,Krakow.

















26. Mattia Preti (called: il Cavalier Calabrese) (1613-1669), St. Sebastian (c. 1660), Museo Capodimonte, Naples.










Tied or Bound

How was St. Sebastian tied to the column or stake or tree? This may be a moot point, but the manner in which the martyr was secured runs the gamut of possibilities from the Renaissance through the XX Century and affects the composition of each and every painting. The tying or binding of the martyr-saint, as noted, assumes a number of variations. The most popular variations are:


1) St. Sebastian's hands bound together behind him, his feet bound and his body tied to a column or stake or tree is not a common representation--e.g., Giovanni de Campis (XVth C.) (See: Figure 27), or Giovanni Bellini (1460-1464) (See: Figure 28),



27. Giovanni de Campis (XVth C.), St. Sebastian, Church of San Giovanni al Monte,Vicenza.
































28. Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516), Tryptych of St Sebastian (1460-1464), Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venezia.